Introduction
Vermiculture, or worm farming, is the utilization of some
species of earthworm such as Eisenia fetida (commonly known as red wiggler,
brandling, or manure worm), E. foetida, and Lumbricus rubellus to make
Vermicompost (aka Worm Compost, Vermicast, Worm Castings, Worm Poop, Worm Humus
or Worm Manure), which is a nutrient-rich, natural fertilizer and soil
conditioner, which is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter.
Unlike composting, worm farming can be carried out on the
balcony of an apartment, in the basement of a house, or in a heated garage if
the bin is suitable and it is well maintained to avoid odors. Worm bins also:
can speed up the process by months[1]
are often much smaller than compost bins
can take pure kitchen waste, without needing garden waste or
soil once the colony has been established
can handle paper (e.g. paper with food on it, which can't be
put out with paper recycling)
Vermiculture can be an especially useful practice in
developing countries where fertilizer is harder to obtain. It can be used to
convert animal waste, food scraps, and other dead organic matter into a
nutrient rich fertilizer. This can ultimately be used to fertilize a home
garden and produce a greater quality and quantity of food for the family.
[edit] History of Composting and Vermiculture
[edit] History of Composting
One can imagine that that the more nutrients a plant has,
the healthier it is and the better it will grow. The healthier plant will
produce more fruit. Modern science shows us how nutrients promote better plant
growth, but in prehistoric times it was most likely an observation. If one puts
a nutrient rich substance such animal manure in the soil next to a plant, it
will promote a greater yield. Thus, the need to produce nutrient rich organic matter
from animal manure, leaves, and other plant matter, was born.
It is hard to pinpoint the origin of composting because of
its very long history most likely dating to prehistoric times. Some of the
first written accounts of composting date to 3000 B.C where the use of manure
as fertilizer is mentioned on clay tablets. Composting throughout history is
documented in written works such as the bible, ancient Chinese writings, and
the Bagavad Vita. Prehistoric farmers composted by mixing straw with animal manure.
Ancient Greeks composted using straw from animal stalls. Native Americans and
early European settlers enjoyed the benefits of mixing fish and organic matter
to make a nutrient rich fertilizer for plants.[2]
In 1840, Justus Von Liebig published ORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN
ITS APPLICATION TO AGRICULTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY. In this book, Liebig showed that
plants absorb nutrients that are suspended in solution [3]. This disproved the
theory that plants “eat” humus (nutrient rich organic matter) to gain their
nutrients. Liebig’s publication revolutionized the farming industry. It was
much easier for farmers to apply chemical fertilizers rather that add composted
material. These practices led to land degradation through erosion, insect
infestation, and eutrophication of waterways by runoff. In 1940, Sir Albert
Howard developed a composting method that involved specific ratios of carbon
and nitrogen, 3 to 1 respectively. This was achieved by mixing three parts
green matter such as plant leaves to one part brown matter such as animal
manure [4]. Howard proved that compost was better for plant nutrient uptake
than chemical fertilizers alone because compost improved soil aeration and
water holding capacity which allowed for better nutrient uptake. Howard proved
that compost was a natural way of producing plant fertilizer and that it was
actually better for the plant. This inspired people to develop different
methods of composing such as tumbling barrel composters and backyard
composters. People began to compost at home to create a natural fertilizer for
gardening. A study found that people are most likely to compost based on their
attitude on what composting involves and their knowledge of composting[5].
Howard showed that composting produced a valuable
fertilizer, but other studies have shown that composting is a valuable way of
reducing the amount of organic waste that is put into landfills. It is
estimated that each person in the United States generates 2.6 pounds of organic
waste per day[6]. A study done in the UK showed that 20% of biodegradable waste
could be diverted from a landfill if 20% of the community would compost at
home[7]. Due to economic and public health constraints, large scale composting
operations didn’t gain traction in Europe until the 1950’s and in the United
States until the 1980’s[8]. New developments in composting inspired cities,
farmers, and industries to compost on a large scale. Cities started to use
composting in waste water treatment so that waste could be converted to
fertilizer and not dumped into a landfill. A composting plant in Sweden would
take waste and dewater it, mix it with shredded refuse, pulverize it, and allow
it to compost. They would then use the compost as fertilizer[9]. In the last 20
years, composting has increased especially on a household scale due to its
beneficial impacts on the environment.
[edit] History of Vermiculture
Fig 1. Cover of "Worms Eat Our Garbage" by Mary
Appelhof, one of the first books on home vermicomposting [10]
The Egyptians were one of the first cultures to recognize
the soil amending properties of the earthworm. Under Cleopatra’s rule, the
removal of earthworms from Egypt was a crime that could have one killed [11].
Worms have been observed by such scholars as Aristotle and Charles Darwin as
organisms that decompose organic matter into rich humus or compost[12]. It is
believed that the mother of modern day vermiculture is Mary Appelhof. As a
Michigan biology teacher, Appelhov wanted to continue composting in winter
months even though she lived in a northern climate. She ordered worms from a
bait shop nearby and set up one of the first indoor composting systems[12]. She
found her composting system to be a great success. She published two brochures
titled “Basement Worm Bins Produce Potting Soil and Reduce Garbage” and
“Composting your Garbage with Worms”. Her work was featured in a New York Times
titled “Urban Composting: A New Can of Worms”. This inspired many people to
partake in vermiculture, especially urban apartment dwellers[12].
Some of the advantages of vermicomposting over regular
composting are that vermicomposting can be done indoors with relatively no
negative effects, it is faster than regular composting, and it produces and
overall better compost. A study showed that traditional composting it associated
with elevated temperatures within the pile due to microbial activity. These
high temperatures actually slow the composting process[13]. Vermicomposting
produces little heat which does not slow the composting process.
Vermicomposting has also been studied and implemented on a large scale. One
study found that composting animal waste was a valuable way to produce food for
other animals. Pig, cow, and chicken waste was composted and converted into
worm biomass. This worm biomass was found to be a nutritious food stock for
other animals[14].
[edit]Biology of Worms
Vermiculture uses worms to break down organic matter into
Compost. Compost is a rich fertilizer that can be added to soil to provide many
benefits. The most common worm used in vermiculture is the red earthworm
(Eisenia fetida). Worm anatomy and physiology is an integral part of the design
of a vermicomposter so it will be discussed here. Other common earthworms can
be used in vermiculture and they can be implemented into the system the same
way as Eisenia fetida. Because of worms’ similarities, the common earthworm
(night crawler type) will be discussed here and will be related to E. fetida.
[edit]Biology
Worms are found throughout the world. They are small
(10-300mm long) tube shaped organisms that live in or on top of the soil. Worms
start their life as a cocoon deposited in the soil by parents. Worms can life
from a few months to 10 years, but they usually do not reach the latter age
because of environmental hazards they are exposed to. Some species of worms
have the capacity to regenerate parts that are detached, although tests show
this is an uncommon trait [15]. All earthworms have both male and female
reproductive organs. These hermaphroditic digesters will mate at different
times depending on their specific species and acclimation to their environment.
[16] Worms mate both on the surface and in the soil, with the latter being most
common. Once fertilized and grown, the worm will deposit the cocoon where
environmental conditions are right in the soil [15].
Worms have a relatively simple digestive system that runs
along the length of their body. Organic matter is ingested at the front of the
worm where the mouth is located. The organic matter is then passed through a
gizzard there strong muscles contract and grind up the organic matter. Enzymes
are then released by the stomach to break down organic matter and release
energy that the worm can use. Worms have a symbiotic relationship with
microorganisms in their digestive system. The microorganisms help the worm
digest organic matter while the worm gives the microorganisms a place to live.
In turn, both the microorganisms and the worm benefit from the relationship.
Waste is excreted by the worm at the back where the anus is located [15]. The
waste excreted by worms is called worm casts (vermicasts). Vermicasts contain
more micro-organisms, inorganic materials, and organic matter in the form
available to plants than regular soil [15].
Earthworms are sensitive to pH. A study showed that E.
fetida found in more acidic peats (3.6-4.2) burrowed less, respired less, and
produced less castings [17]. The activities (metabolism, growth, reproduction,
respiration) of earthworms are greatly influenced by temperature. These two
factors can influence how fast a vermiculture system operates. Earthworms can
be killed by extreme temperature such as extreme heat and extreme cold. They
can also be killed by drying. Worms are usually found where there is much
organic matter. Conversely, they are usually not found where there is little
organic matter to be eaten. Worms can eat a wide variety of organic matter for
food. In adverse conditions, they can even extract nourishment from soil for a
short duration [15].
[edit]Impacts of Worms on their Surrounding Ecosystem
Even though worms are relatively small and don’t account for
much of the biomass in an ecosystem, they can still have large impacts. There
is still a lot about worms that is not known. In the book “The Biology of
Worms” the authors call for much more research to be done [15].
[edit]Benefits
There are many benefits of having earthworms in an
ecosystem. Common earthworms (nightcrawler types) might be the “most efficient
biological agents to be found anywhere in the world. They specialize in
removing dead organic material from the surface of the land, greatly enriching
it in the process, and then…carry the improved reside deep underground, right
down amongst the roots of plants, where it is most needed."[18]
Earthworms have been shown to increase seed dispersal. A
study showed a positive correlation between the number of earthworms present
and the number of seedlings [19]. This study showed that earthworms
inadvertently eat plant seeds. The worms continue to burrow through the soil as
these seeds pass through their digestive system. The seeds are untimely
excreted within the soil. Not only is this a great seed dispersal system for
plants, the seeds are also excreted in a worm cast which is a nutrient rich
substance for the seed. Worms have been found to be sensitive to pesticides and
herbicides, and thus have been used as bio-indicators of healthy or poor soils
[20]. This can be an easy way for farmers to assess the health of their soils.
Another study showed that E. fetida can be used as a bio-indicator of high
concentrations of heavy metals such as copper and lead in the soil [21].
Earthworms have also been shown to increase bio-turbation. A
study showed that earthworms take organic matter from the surface of the soil
and migrate it to the upper soil horizons. This ultimately took nutrients such
as N and P and put it proximal to plants roots, increasing the accessibility of
nutrients to the plant [22].
One of the most beneficial aspects of worms is the casts
they produce. Worm casts (vermicasts/ worm poop/worm compost) are the feces of
worms. Worm casts are high in nutrients such as NH4, accessible P and SO4, K,
Ca, and Mg. Soil with worms also contained almost twice as much organic carbon
[23]. Another study showed that worms casts stimulated plant growth by making
nutrients more available and also by increasing the water holding capacity of
the soil [24]. Worm casts increase the amount and accessibility of nutrients to
the soil, the water holding content of the soil, and the amount of beneficial
microorganisms in the soil.
[edit]Negative Effects
Earthworms have been shown to have a plethora of benefits.
But, some of these characteristics make them bad for certain ecosystems. In the
native northern hardwood forests of United States, earthworms are, in recent
history (since last glacial period) an invasive species. These earthworms are
introduced almost exclusively by human activity such as anglers dumping unused
worms in waterways or on soil, bulk earth movement associated with construction
and forestry road construction, and by vermiculturalists introducing them
through compost. Although earthworms are great for plants, a study showed that
invading earthworms were correlated with a loss of understory plant species,
and increase is soil carbon loss, and their effect of nutrient cycling [25].
Northern hardwood forests have adapted to a slow organic decomposition rate and
snow nutrient turnover. Earthworms are invasive in these ecosystems because
they are very efficient and fast at decomposing organic matter and nutrient
turnover and northern hardwood forests are not adapted to these conditions. A
study showed that in just four years, an organic layer of 10cm was depleted in
a hardwood forest in Minnesota [26]. The slow organic turnover in hardwood
forests provides a sink for carbon. Thus, the faster decomposition of organic
matter by invading earthworms has also been proposed as a possible driver of
global climate change due to the release of this carbon from storage [25] .
There are ways people can stop this invasion, especially
when it comes to vermicomposting. A study showed that some species of worms are
less tolerant of cold weather. Of these species, E. fetida is a species that
cannot tolerate cold temperatures, thus it will not be able to tolerate
northern winters [27]. This study suggest that in cold climates where worms are
known to be invasive (Northern Hardwoods), vermiculturist can freeze their
worms for an extended time to kill them and mitigate the potential for
invasion.
[edit]Biology of E. fetida
Fig. 2 Picture of E. fetida
E. fetida, the worm most commonly used in vermiculture, have
characteristics of common worms. They are epigian, meaning the spend most of
their time above the soil. E. fetida is most commonly chosen as the worm used
in vermicompost systems because of its ability to process organic matter
rapidly. One study showed that the presence of E. fetida in manure increased
overall microbial biomass and activity. Their presence also increased the
overall fungal biomass and activity. Their presence also increased the
diversity of both microbes and fungi. In this study, the rate of carbon loss
was almost twice that where the worms were not present [28]. This shows that
with E. fetida, decomposition happens almost twice as fast. Because of this
property of fast decomposition rate, E. fetida is usually chosen as the worm for
vermiculture because it reduces the time needed to make compost. E. fetida is
also chosen for vermiculture because of its ability to break down cellulose.
Cellulose is the most abundant polymer in nature and it is the largest
component that enters terrestrial ecosystems. A study showed that the presence
of E. fetida almost doubled the rate of cellulose decomposition [29].
[edit]Supplies For Home and School Projects
Vermicomposting Supplies
[edit]Design
One of the benefits of a vermicomposter is its relatively
simple design. There are three main parts to a vermicomposter. There is the
storage area where the worms and organic matter is stored, the organic matter
(food scraps) and bedding for the worms, and lastly there are the worms.
[edit]Storage Area
Fig 3. A small scale vermicompost bin. Note the holes in lid
to allow air flow
Storage areas for vermicomposters are diverse and can be
selected to meet the needs of the individual who is composting. The storage
area’s function is to contain the worms and organic matter to be composted.
Ultimately, the only restriction is that it needs to keep your worms
centralized. This is relatively easy because if you create an environment
suitable for the worms they will be content living in any storage area. Some important
things to consider are size, materials, and if one would like to build their
own or purchase the storage area. If indoors, storage areas typically have a
cover that reduces smells. If a cover is present, holes need to be installed to
allow oxygen to enter the storage area. Holes should also be installed at the
bottom of the storage area to allow excess fluid drainage to ensure proper
moisture conditions inside the storage area.
If you'd like to make your own bin there are many designs
that have already been implemented around the world. These can be adopted and
altered to suit your own needs most appropriately:
Worm Farming: a page with great information and three
different designs.
Barrel Design: from Costa Rica
Kids' Worm Bin: made from cartons and small enough for urban
living with a video demonstration
Worm Bin for School: another barrel design from Humboldt
County
Barrel'o'fun:with detailed pictoral instructions
CCAT's Vermicomposting Bin: a beautifully designed system
for those looking to exercise their carpentry skills
Shoebox- Sized Bin:another small-scale design
Bucket Design: slightly less small-scale, higher capacity,
stores under some sinks.
Typical storage bins for household use are storage totes,
buckets, and trash bins. Others have constructed their bins out of wood or
plastic. The bins should not contain chemicals that may leach into the compost
such as those commonly found in Styrofoam. If the storage area is outside, the
location of the storage area should be considered. Earthworms do not like
extreme temperatures, so very sunny spots should be avoided.
[edit]Organic Matter and Bedding
Bedding is important for the system especially in the early
stages. The bedding provides early habitat for the worms provides them with a
food source early on. Bedding is typically composed of what earthworms would
usually eat such as leaf litter, grass litter, and other dead organic plant
matter. People have used non-traditional organic matter as well such as
shredded paper and saw dust. The bedding must be moistened to assure proper
environmental conditions of the worm.
[edit]Worms
Worms are an integral part of the composting system. Worms
most commonly selected are E. fetida and E. foetida. The function of the worms
is to convert organic matter into compost. Worms should be selected based on
how much organic matter you wish to compost and how fast. Worms can eat roughly
their body weight per week. This is a very crude estimate because so many
factors can affect composting rate, but it can be used as a good estimate.
Using this figure, if one produces 1kg of household food waste or other organic
matter per week, they will then need round 1/8 kg of worms.
[edit]Construction and Operation
[edit]Construction
The first step is to select a storage area. The first thing
to consider is the size of you storage area. This depends on how much organic
matter you will be composting, the amount of worms you have, and how often you
would like to switch storage areas. Your bin size should depend on these three
things. Large amounts of organic matter per week will need larger areas. Longer
time between bin changes will also require larger areas. Storage areas that are
planned for household use should have a lid to help reduce smells. Bins should
have small holes to allow adequate air flow and holes on the bottom to allow
for access fluid drainage.
Once a storage area is obtained, puncture holes in the lid
(if present) and bottom to allow airflow and fluid drainage. If composting in a
house, the bin should be elevated to allow drainage of fluid. A set of bricks
works nicely. You will also want to put something under the bin to catch fluid.
The third step is to prepare the bedding for the worms. Once
the bedding has been chosen (leaves, newspaper, sawdust), start by submerging it
in water. Remove the bedding from the water and squeeze out the water. Then
take the bedding and lay it in the storage area. There should be roughly 5 cm
of bedding across the floor of the storage area. The bin is now ready for worms
and composting.
[edit]Operation
Fig 4. Introducing worms into a vermicomposter
The first step in operating a vermicomposter is to introduce
the worms to the system. Remember that this should be scaled to the amount of
organic matter you will add weekly. Note that you worms will reproduce and
become larger, ultimately eating more organic matter. Thus, it is best to start
with a smaller amount of worms to ensure that there will be enough organic
matter. Put your worms on your already prepared bedding. The worms can survive
on the bedding alone for a short duration, so adding organic matter isn’t
crucial within the first couple of hours. Once introduced, the worms will want
to explore their new habitat. If composting in your house, watch the bin
closely first 24 hours to ensure no worms escape the bin. Within 24-48 hours
the worms should become acclimated to their new habitat and will no longer try
to escape.
The next step is to add organic matter. Add the organic
matter to be composting by placing it on top of the worm bedding. New organic
matter should not be added until previous organic matter is almost all
composted. There are few things that earthworms cannot eat.
Suitable organic matter that can be added are
coffee grounds with filter and tea bags
all fruits and vegetables, including rinds and cores
egg shells
leaves and grass clippings
beans, rice, and other cooked grains
bread and crackers
Fig 5. Photo of a working vermicomposter, nearing the the
time to be harvested
Items that should be avoided are
meat
bones
foods high in oils and fats, such as grease from meat
[edit]Maintenance
A vermicomposter requires little maintenance. A long a food
is added when previously added organic matter is almost composted the system
should require little maintenance. Check on the composter weekly. The system is
running properly if the worms are within the organic matter and bedding. If the
worms are trying to escape this is an indicator that the conditions in the
bedding and organic matter are not suitable for the worms. Once the bin is full
or you wish to use the compost, the vermicompost will have to be harvested. The
vermicompost is ready to be harvested when it has an earthy smell and no
organic matter is visible.
[edit]Harvesting
Fig 6. Diagram showing how to harvest compost using the
vertical method
Handsorting, vertical sorting, and horizontal sorting are
all ways of harvesting vermicompost. Some ways are faster, but involve more
work while others are slower but involve little work.
Handsorting - This is done by dumping the vermicompost onto
a sheet where the worms can be sorted out. Once dumped, worms can be picked out
of the vermicompost and put into the new composter. Sift through the
vermicompost removing all worms and worm eggs (cocoons). The eggs are white/tan
and pea sized. They can be easily recognized and removed. A bright light can be
focused on the pile to concentrate the worms toward the center of the pile if
desired. This method is more labor intensive but it is fast compared to
vertical and horizontal sorting.
Vertical sorting – Vertical sorting uses an alternating bin
and allows the worms to sort themselves from the vermicompost. This works best
if bins are being used for the storage area because they are easily stacked. To
sort vertically, obtain a second bin and prepare it as you would if you are
starting a new vermicomposter. Remove the lid of the bin currently in use and
place the new bin on top of vermicompost. Place new organic matter on top of
the bedding in the new vermicomposter. Over time as the worms run out of food
in the old composter, they will migrate to the new bin via the drainage holes
in the bottom of the new bin. This way or sorting requires minimal work because
they worms sort themselves, but it does require more time.
Fig 7. Diagram of how to harvest vermicompost using the
horizontal method
Horizontal sorting – Horizontal sorting is similar to
vertical sorting but it does not require a second storage area. To sort
horizontally, partition your bin into areas. Add organic matter in a linear
fashion. As you add your new organic matter across the bin, the worms will
migrate with it. Eventually, you can harvest the vermicompost at the other side
of the bin as your worms migrate to the fresh organic matter. This system
requires minimal work sorting, but it does require more time as opposed to hand
sorting.
[edit]Using the Vermicompost
Vermicompost can be used immediately or can be stored for
later. Vermicompost can be mixed with soil as a soil amendment to increase
nutrients, water holding capacity, and aeration. Vermicompost can be used as
top dressing for household plants to increase the nutrients available to them.
Vermicompost can be seeped in water to extract the nutrients and then nutrient
water can be applied to plants. Vermicompost can also be used as a mulch [30].
[edit] Troubleshooting
A vermicomposter should require little maintenance, but
problems can arise. Consult the following table for troubles. Remember that
worms will want to stay in the bin if conditions are right for them. If worms
are trying to escape conditions in the composter should be altered.
Problem
Cause[31] Solution
Foul odor
Too much air Make smaller holes
Not enough air Make
bigger holes
Too much organic matter Add
less organic matter per feeding
Dying worms Too
wet Make more drainage holes
Too dry Mist compost to
add water
No food Add
food
No bedding for worms Harvest
compost and add bedding
Extreme temperatures Moderate
Temperatures
Fruit Flies Air
holes too big Make smaller
air holes or bury organic matter under bedding
[edit]Impacts
[edit]Good
Fig 8. Vermicompost ready to be applied to plants as
fertilizer
Easy access to nutrient rich compost could have very large
impacts on families, especially in developing countries. With access to
vermicompost, families have access to nutrient rich fertilizer that will promote
better plant growth in family gardens. Vermicompost will also make it easier
for families to grow gardens because of its beneficial properties. Family
gardening provides families with food security and better food nutrition. Food
security increases because families have direct access to food that can be
harvested on a daily basis. Nutrition of the family increases because plants
are more nutritious due to the vermicompost [32].
With earth population recently reaching 7 million and
continuing to rise, a large problem is feeding all of these people with a
limited amount of agricultural land. Because of this problem, urban gardening
is becoming ever more important. In Kibera, Nairobi, urban gardening has been
shown to increase nutrition and also increase family income by money generated
from selling excess produce. Families have been able to increase their income
by 5-6 USD per week [33]. Vermiculture is an easily made fertilizer that could
be used in urban agriculture to boost nutrition and crop yields, potentially
increasing family income.A study done showed that in India and other locations,
vermiculture and vermicompost have the potential of completely replacing
chemical fertilizers [34]. This could have a large impact because much of
today’s synthetic fertilizers are made using large amounts of fossil fuels.
A large impact that vermicomposting can have is reducing the
amount of organic waste that is sent to landfills each year. An Australian
statistic states that about two thirds (62%) of all waste landfilled in 06-07
in Australia was organic waste [35]. With vermiculture, much of this waste can
be composted and turned into vermicompost. This has the potential to increase
the longevity of landfills and reduce the costs associated with handling municipal
solid waste.
[edit]Bad
One of the bad things about vermiculture is that it may
introduce earthworms where they are not a native species. This may cause
problems that are similar to the earthworm invading Northern hardwood Forests
of the United States. To avoid this, worms do not like extreme temperatures or
conditions. Thus, if living in a cold climate, worms can be killed by freezing
them over winter. Worms can also be killed in a hot climate by heating up the
compost in the sun or drying out the compost. The worms will dry out and die if
moisture is not adequate. Ultimately, worms will want to be conserved and given
to neighbors for use.
[edit]Dissemination
There is a plethora of information regarding vermicomposting
on the internet, in magazines, and in books. Cities are holding events where
they teach citizens about vermicomposting and its benefits because it can
reduce the amount of waste that ends up in the landfill, thus reducing the
costs that are associated with trucking and moving the waste. Ultimately this
saves the city money, but it is better for the environment as well. This
technology is mostly being implemented and used in developed countries on a
household scale. Vermicomposting has the most potential in developing countries
because of the benefits that are associated with vermicomposting. Below is a
list of links to more information about vermiculture for further reference.
[edit] Interwiki links
Wikipedia:Vermiculture
[edit] External links
Wikia:Permaculture:Worm compost
City Farmer, Canada's Office of Urban Agriculture -
Composting With Red Wiggler Worms.
Klicitat County - Worm Bin Plans (OSCR Jr.)
The Worm Digest
Amy Stewart | Blog | Worm Blog | Worm PDF | Books
Working WormsDIY Worm Farming.
vermiculture discussion at permies.com
[edit]References
↑ http://working-worms.com/content/view/38/60/
↑ http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/history.html
↑ Liebig, Justus Von. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN ITS APPLICATION
TO AGRICULTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY, Published by John Owen, 1843.
↑ Fitzpatrick, G. E, Worden, E. C, Vendrame, W. A, (2005).
Historical Development of Composting Technology during the 20th Century.
HortTechnology, Jan-Mar 2005, Vol. 15 Num. 1, pp 48-51.
↑ Edgerton, E, Mckechnie, J, Dunleavy, K, (2009) Behavioral
Determinants of Household Participation in Home composting Schemes. Environment
and Behavior, Mar 2009, Vol. 41 Num. 2, pp 151-169.
↑ Raloff, J, (1993) Cleaning up Compost. Science News,
Jan-1993, Vol. 143 Num. 4, pp 56-58.
↑ Smith, S. R, Jasim, S, (2009) Small-scale home composting
of biodegradable household waste: overview of results from a 3-year research
programme in West London. Waste Management and research, 2009, pp 941-950.
↑ Blum, B, (1992) Composting and the Roots of Sustainable
Agriculture. Agricultural History, Spring – 1992, Vol. 66 Num. 2, pp 171-188.
↑ Hovsenius, G, (1975) Composting and use of Compost in
Sweden. Journal (Water Pollution Control federation), Arp – 1975, Vol. 47 Num.
4, pp 741-747.
↑ http://www.wormplicity.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Worms-Eat-Our-Garbage-Classroom-Activities-for-a-Better-Environment.jpg
↑
(http://greenliving.nationalgeographic.com/ancient-composting-20323.html)
↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2
http://www.gardenguides.com/121248-history-vermicomposting.html
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